Political Science

Courses

POLI 101  - Introduction to Global Politics  (3 Credits)  
Introduction to theories about global politics. Issues and controversies central to global politics.
Carolina Core: GSS
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 103A  - Controversies in the Politics of Global Regions: Africa  (3 Credits)  
Social, cultural, and historical forces underlying contemporary political controversies in Africa POLI 103A, Asia POLI 103B, Europe POLI 103C, Latin America POLI 103D, and the Middle East POLI 103E; region will be identified by title.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 103B  - Controversies in the Politics of Global Regions: Asia  (3 Credits)  
Social, cultural, and historical forces underlying contemporary political controversies in Africa POLI 103A, Asia POLI 103B, Europe POLI 103C, Latin America POLI 103D, and the Middle East POLI 103E; region will be identified by title.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 103C  - Controversies in the Politics of Global Regions: Europe  (3 Credits)  
Social, cultural, and historical forces underlying contemporary political controversies in Africa POLI 103A, Asia POLI 103B, Europe POLI 103C, Latin America POLI 103D, and the Middle East POLI 103E; region will be identified by title.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 103D  - Controversies in the Politics of Global Regions: Latin America  (3 Credits)  
Social, cultural, and historical forces underlying contemporary political controversies in Africa POLI 103A, Asia POLI 103B, Europe POLI 103C, Latin America POLI 103D, and the Middle East POLI 103E; region will be identified by title.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 103E  - Controversies in the Politics of Global Regions: Middle East  (3 Credits)  
Social, cultural, and historical forces underlying contemporary political controversies in Africa POLI 103A, Asia POLI 103B, Europe POLI 103C, Latin America POLI 103D, and the Middle East POLI 103E; region will be identified by title.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 105  - Introduction to Politics  (3 Credits)  
Concepts and problems involved in human relationship with governments, the nation-state, and political change.
POLI 107  - Controversies in Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the analysis of disputes about the nature of politics and of political ideas such as freedom, equality, and justice.
POLI 109  - Controversies in Public Policy  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the analysis of contentious public policy questions in contemporary American society, such as welfare, gun control, health care financing, immigration, affirmative action, and/or abortion.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy
POLI 111  - Controversies in American Politics  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the analysis of key issues in contemporary American politics focusing on the arguments, the groups involved, and the political factors that influence the outcome of the debate.
POLI 121  - Green Explorations  (3 Credits)  
Interdisciplinary seminar combining the intellectual exploration of ecological perspectives with the physical exploration of the local environment. First-year students only.
Cross-listed course: ENVR 121
POLI 122  - Green Engagements  (3 Credits)  
Interdisciplinary seminar on designing, researching, and implementing collaborative projects to promote ecological sustainability. First-year students only.
Cross-listed course: ENVR 122
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Community Service, GLD: Research
POLI 201  - American National Government  (3 Credits)  
The formation and development of the national government, its organization and powers. Overlay Course.
Carolina Core: GSS, VSR
Founding Documents: FND Founding Documents
POLI 202  - Policies and Functions of American Government  (3 Credits)  
The policies and functions of the American national government directed to the public issues and problems of contemporary America.
Prerequisites: POLI 201.
POLI 215  - Introduction to Leadership Studies  (3 Credits)  
Conceptions and models, values and pitfalls, strategies and skills of leadership and of leaders in diverse contexts
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 240  - Language Conflict and Language Rights  (3 Credits)  
Examination of linguistic conflict and rights, as well as centrality of language rights to human rights and personal/cultural identity. Basic facts about language related to identity, culture, attitudes, dialects, bilingualism. Case studies (local, national, international) with particular attention to nationalism, language revitalization, language planning.
Cross-listed course: LING 240
Carolina Core: VSR
POLI 300  - Social and Political Philosophy  (3 Credits)  
An overview of major themes in political philosophy such as the nature of politics, obligation, community, representation, freedom, equality, and justice.
Cross-listed course: PHIL 330
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 301  - The Political Science Discipline  (3 Credits)  
The history and development of approaches, methods, and fields of study in political science.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 302  - Classical and Medieval Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
Political theories from the Greeks to the Renaissance.
Carolina Core: VSR
POLI 303  - Modern Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
Political theories from the Renaissance to the 19th century.
Carolina Core: VSR
POLI 304  - Contemporary Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
Nineteenth and 20th century political theories.
Carolina Core: VSR
Founding Documents: FND Founding Documents
POLI 305  - Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality  (3 Credits)  
Historical and contemporary power relationships in race, social class, gender, and sexual orientation.
Cross-listed course: SOCY 304, WGST 304
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Community Service, GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 307  - Feminist Theory  (3 Credits)  
Historical development of feminist theory and contemporary debates within feminism.
Cross-listed course: WGST 307
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 315  - International Relations  (3 Credits)  
International political behavior and institutions.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 316  - Comparative Politics  (3 Credits)  
Comparative approaches to political systems, behavior, and institutions.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 330  - International Organization  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the structure and functions of international political and economic organizations. Particular attention to the United Nations and its specialized agencies, and to emerging regional communities.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 340  - The Conduct and Formulation of United States Foreign Policy  (3 Credits)  
An analysis of how contemporary United States foreign policy is made and conducted.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 341  - Contemporary United States Foreign Policy  (3 Credits)  
A critical analysis of selected problems of United States foreign policy.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 342  - National Security Policies of the United States  (3 Credits)  
Formulation and implementation of contemporary United States defense and security policies.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 350  - Public Opinion and Politics  (3 Credits)  
A broad survey of the role and development of public attitudes toward political problems in a democracy. Emphasis on the origins, manifestations, and consequences of public opinion in American politics.
POLI 352  - Gender and Politics  (3 Credits)  
Impact of gender on the distribution of power in society; foundations for intersections of gender, race, social class, and sexuality and their economic, social, and political concomitants.
Cross-listed course: WGST 352
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 353  - Introduction to U.S. Racial and Ethnic Politics  (3 Credits)  
Survey of theories of the impact of race, ethnicity, and racism on American politics, and analysis of major policies and racial group experience regarding American citizenship.
Cross-listed course: AFAM 353
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 357  - Film, Politics, and Social Change  (3 Credits)  
Critical analysis of film as expression and agent of political cultural, ideology, and change.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy
POLI 360  - American Political Parties  (3 Credits)  
A broad survey of the role of political parties in the American political system. Following an examination of the historical evolution of party systems in the United States, primary attention is given to three aspects of contemporary political parties: the party as an organization, the party as an electorate, and the party as a governing elite.
POLI 361  - Elections and Voting Behavior  (3 Credits)  
An analysis of elections and the voting process. Topics include candidate selection, campaigning, and the conduct of elections as well as public opinion, voting behavior, and the role of elections in the democratic political system.
POLI 362  - Politics and the Mass Media  (3 Credits)  
Survey of the role in American politics of mass communications media, including the press and electronic news reporting; influence of mass media on the conduct of political campaigns, political leadership style, and public opinion.
POLI 363  - Southern Politics  (3 Credits)  
Selected political patterns and trends within the 11 states of the American South. Historical developments with the central focus on Southern politics since 1950.
POLI 364  - African-American Politics  (3 Credits)  
African-American politics from the colonial period to the present. Emphasis on voting rights and strategies to advance black representation.
Cross-listed course: AFAM 364
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 365  - State Government  (3 Credits)  
A study of state-federal relations, relations among states, state constitutions, and the structure and functions of the three branches of government. Emphasis is given to South Carolina.
POLI 368  - Interest Groups and Social Movements  (3 Credits)  
The mobilization, organization, tactics, and results of group-based politics, including latent interests and the suppression of interests.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 370  - Introduction to Public Administration  (3 Credits)  
A study of the basic principles and theory of administrative structure, responsibility, and control in relation to policy making in the modern state.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 371  - Politics of Taxing and Spending  (3 Credits)  
Principles and practices of financial administration, including organization, budgeting, assessment, treasury management, and debt.
POLI 373  - Regulatory Policies  (3 Credits)  
Types and limits of powers exercised by regulatory agencies; procedural law and remedies against administrative action.
POLI 374  - Public Policy  (3 Credits)  
Process of and major approaches to making public policy particularly, in the United States. Case study materials will focus on such major policies as welfare, health care, national security, and resource management.
POLI 378  - State Government Internship  (3 Credits)  
A course designed to complement internship work in state/local government by introducing students to key concepts in state and local governance and politics to best facilitate the internship experience.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Internships
Experiential Learning: Experiential Learning Opportunity
POLI 379  - Public Affairs Internship  (3 Credits)  
A course designed to complement internship work in state/local government by introducing students to key concepts in state and local governance and politics to best facilitate the internship experience.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Internships
Experiential Learning: Experiential Learning Opportunity
POLI 380  - Comparative Politics of Developing Countries  (3 Credits)  
A comparative analysis of the political problems confronting new nations, the political consequences of the breakdown of traditional society and the problems of developing new institutional forms and procedures.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 381  - Comparative Politics of Industrialized Countries  (3 Credits)  
Introduction to the development, structure, and functioning of government and politics in Western Europe, the former Soviet states, and other selected industrialized countries.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 383  - Genocide: A Comparative Perspective  (3 Credits)  
An analysis of the causes of genocide and the application of those insights to explain how genocide has occurred repeatedly at various times and places across the globe.
POLI 391  - Topics in Political Science  (3 Credits)  
May be repeated once as topics change.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Community Service
POLI 393  - Race and Science Fiction  (3 Credits)  
Draws on science fiction to understand the contemporary history of American racial and ethnic politics and to speculate about the significance of race in America’s political future.
Cross-listed course: AFAM 393
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 399  - Independent Study/Poli Sci  (3 Credits)  
Note: Prior approval of an individualized contract by the director of undergraduate studies in political science and the instructor who will supervise the project required.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 399A  - Independent Study in Political Science  (1-6 Credits)  
Prior approval of and individualized contract by the director of undergraduate studies in political science and the instructor who will supervise the project required.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 399B  - Independent Study in International Studies  (1-6 Credits)  
Prior approval of an individualized contract by the director of undergraduate studies in international studies and the instructor who will supervise the project required.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 400  - Selected Topics in Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
Intensive analysis of a particular topic or topics. To be identified by title each semester.
POLI 401  - Selected Thinkers in Political Theory  (3 Credits)  
Intensive analysis of particular theorist or theorists. To be identified by title each semester.
POLI 402  - African American Political Thought  (3 Credits)  
Survey of many of the major schools of historic and contemporary African American political thought.
Cross-listed course: AFAM 402
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 404  - Democratic Theory  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to contemporary theories and practices with focus on Western, especially American, experience.
POLI 406  - The State of American Politics  (3 Credits)  
Major factors that affect the state of contemporary American politics, including the Constitution, the Congress, the courts, the presidency, the states, federalism, political parties, special-interest groups, and the electoral process.
POLI 416  - Revolution and Political Violence  (3 Credits)  
Forms, causes, and consequences of domestic political violence with special attention to revolution.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 417  - Theories of War in International Relations  (3 Credits)  
The contributions of the social sciences and social theorists to an understanding of the causes of war.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 420  - International Law  (3 Credits)  
The origin, development, and principles of the international law of peace and the enforcement of these principles, the law of war and pacific settlement of disputes.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 421  - Law and Contemporary International Problems  (3 Credits)  
The growth of law in several areas of increasing international concern: environmental protection, expropriation, outer space, individual rights and obligations, conservation of resources, state responsibility, and terrorism.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 430  - Ideology and World Politics  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the ideological context of world affairs, with attention to traditional democratic, totalitarian, and Third World "developmental ideologies".
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 431  - Science, Technology, and Public Policy  (3 Credits)  
Interaction between science and politics, the making of the national science and technology policy, and the role of public policy in promoting and managing scientific change.
POLI 432  - Nationalism and Ethnicity in World Politics  (3 Credits)  
Nationalism and ethnicity as factors in world politics, including the sources, nature, and analysis of conflicts associated with them.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 433  - Economic Aspects of International Politics  (3 Credits)  
Economic problems and policies in international politics including theory of comparative advantage; international economic aid, trade and monetary issues; the United States' role in the international economy; and the functions of international economic institutions.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 437  - International Relations of Latin America  (3 Credits)  
Contemporary international relations among Latin American states, including economic and political security and relations with the United States.
Cross-listed course: LASP 451
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 440  - Russian Foreign Policy  (3 Credits)  
Analysis of the development of foreign policies in Russia and other states of the former USSR with special attention to relations with Europe and the United States.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 442  - Globalization and Security  (3 Credits)  
Exploration of the ways in which globalization may impact national and international security.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 443  - International Relations of East Asia and the Pacific  (3 Credits)  
Political patterns and forces in the Asia/Pacific region in recent times including the process of decolonization, regional conflicts, great power relations, and economic interdependencies.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 444  - International Relations in Japan  (3 Credits)  
The institutions, actors, and processes of Japan's contemporary political and economic foreign affairs.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 445  - Political Economy of Africa's Regions  (3 Credits)  
The historic and contemporary political and economic processes and structures of one or more regions in Africa, such as North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, or Southern Africa.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 446  - International Relations of Africa  (3 Credits)  
Contemporary international relations among African nations including decolonization, pan-Africanism, and movements of national liberation; Africa's role in the United Nations, relations between African states and the former colonial powers, the United States, and communist countries.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 447  - Foreign Policies of Selected Powers  (3 Credits)  
Foreign policy-making institutions, processes, and policies of selected powers with special attention to the domestic determinants of foreign policy.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 448  - Politics and Government of China  (3 Credits)  
Political institutions and processes of the People's Republic of China with secondary emphasis on the government and politics of the Republic of China on Taiwan.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 449  - International Relations of the Middle East  (3 Credits)  
Examination of super- and great-power policies toward the Middle East; inter-regional relations and Middle East foreign relations.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 450  - Constitutional Law I: Institutional Powers  (3 Credits)  
Nature and functions of the national government and its relations with the states.
Founding Documents: FND Founding Documents
POLI 451  - Constitutional Law II: Civil Liberties  (3 Credits)  
Due process and civil liberties.
Founding Documents: FND Founding Documents
POLI 452  - The Judicial Process  (3 Credits)  
A study of the growth of law, the law-making function of the courts, the structure and organization of federal and state courts, the procedures involved in civil and criminal cases, and the problems and proposals for reform in the administration of justice.
Founding Documents: FND Founding Documents
POLI 453  - Moot Court and Legal Research  (3 Credits)  
Introduction to fundamental legal research techniques and strategies applied to controversial court cases in both oral and written forms.
POLI 454  - Women and the Law  (3 Credits)  
Constitutional and statutory case law dealing with gender equality issues. Topics include abortion, affirmative action, pornography, sexual harassment, fetal protection policies, employment discrimination, and women in the military.
Cross-listed course: WGST 454
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 461  - Congress and the Presidency  (3 Credits)  
Analysis of the interaction between the legislative and executive branches within a separation-of-power system.
POLI 462  - The Legislative Process  (3 Credits)  
A study of the structure, organization, powers, functions, and problems of legislative bodies.
POLI 463  - The American Chief Executive  (3 Credits)  
Constitutional, statutory and political powers and roles of the American chief executive.
POLI 464  - Roosevelt Institution Seminar  (3 Credits)  
Analysis and discussion of contemporary public policy problems through exposure to campus experts and intensive writing and peer review.
POLI 465  - Psychology and Politics  (3 Credits)  
The role of psychology in political attitudes and behavior. Examination of individual psycho-political relationships and aggregate typologies. Particular emphasis on the psychological roots of the need for or the rejection of political authority.
Prerequisites: PSYC 101.
POLI 470  - Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations  (3 Credits)  
The origins and evolution of the American federal system, focusing on the constitutional, regulatory, and financial entanglements among federal, state and local governments.
POLI 475  - Survey Research  (3 Credits)  
Principles and practice of survey research/public opinion polling including sampling, questionnaire design, data collection, coding processing and analysis.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 476  - Black Activism  (3 Credits)  
Critical review of theories of community organizing, grassroots activism, and social movements, and examination of contemporary forms of black activism.
Cross-listed course: AFAM 476
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Diversity and Social Advocacy, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 477  - Green Politics  (3 Credits)  
An analysis of green political thought and environmental movements at the local, state, national, and global levels.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Community Service
POLI 478  - Environmental Policy  (3 Credits)  
Themes in environmental policy in industrialized nations. Analysis of issue framing, the role of the public and private tools, and conflicting perspectives. Incorporates analysis of policy process and public management.
POLI 480  - Politics and Government of Russia  (3 Credits)  
Political processes and institutions of Russia and other independent states of the former USSR.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 481  - Politics and Governments of Europe  (3 Credits)  
Political processes and institutions of European nations.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 483  - Middle East Politics  (3 Credits)  
Focuses on the internal politics of Middle East states; historical and cultural setting of Middle East politics, social institutions, and dynamics of the political process.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 487  - Politics and Governments of Africa  (3 Credits)  
Political developments, processes, and institutions of the African nations.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 488  - Politics and Governments of Latin America  (3 Credits)  
The development, principles, political thought, and politics of the several Latin American states.
Cross-listed course: LASP 351
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning, GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 489  - Politics and Government of Japan  (3 Credits)  
Political institutions and processes of Japan.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Global Learning
POLI 498  - Research Experience  (3 Credits)  
Working with a faculty mentor, students develop a research project and related search skills.
Prerequisites: minimum GPA of 3.60 in major courses, 3.30 overall.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 499  - Senior Thesis  (3 Credits)  
For intensive majors. Individual instruction in research techniques and supervised thesis preparation.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Research
POLI 500  - Selected Topics in Civilization and Culture  (3 Credits)  
POLI 502  - Methods of Political Analysis  (3 Credits)  
Quantitative techniques in political science; levels of measurement; problems of description, causation, and inference.
POLI 503  - American Political Thought  (3 Credits)  
Themes and thinkers in American political history.
POLI 504  - Politics and Ethics  (3 Credits)  
The nature of, and relationship between, politics and ethics.
Graduation with Leadership Distinction: GLD: Professional and Civic Engagement Leadership Experiences
POLI 505  - Utopian Political Thought  (3 Credits)  
A critical examination of utopian and dystopian political ideas.
POLI 542  - Research in Language Conflict and Language Rights  (3 Credits)  
Research into the parameters governing linguistic conflicts and language rights issues, involving a close examination of the nexes of language and: individual and ethnic identity, culture, dialects, bilingualism. Examination of regional, national, and international case studies, with particular attention to nationalism, language revitalization, and language planning.
Cross-listed course: LING 542
POLI 552  - Economic Development Policy  (3 Credits)  
The role government policies have in local and regional differences in economic performance; strategies governments and non-profits use to evaluate economic development policies; topical focus on a range of economic development policies, including land use, infrastructure, workforce development, and education.
POLI 554  - Law and Society  (3 Credits)  
The American judicial system, including the decision to resolve disputes by legal means, political influence on the legal system, the social impact of legal rulings, the relationship of the courts to other branches of government, and the applicability of higher law concepts in judicial decision making.
POLI 567  - American Local Government  (3 Credits)  
An introduction to the institutions, functions, policy-making processes, and politics of American local government.
POLI 569  - State and Local Government  (3 Credits)  
This course will examine the purpose, structure, and functions of state governments and their local subdivisions. Requires special permission of department. Restricted to social studies teachers.
POLI 570  - South Carolina Government and Politics  (3 Credits)  
South Carolina state and local government in the context of South Carolina history and U.S. state and local government.
POLI 591  - Special Topics in Political Science  (3 Credits)  
Intensive study of special topics in Political Science. May be repeated as content varies by title.